Preparation and standardisation of HCL NaOH solutions Essay Example

Preparation and standardisation of HCL NaOH solutions Essay Purpose of this lab was to prepare solutions of acid base and then standardize them by using the titration method. Then use them to determine the unknown concentration of an acid solution. Titration is a procedure that is used to study the stoichiometry of a reaction. Before we start the lab we have to some pre-lab exercises.The first exercise is to calculate the number of grams of NaOH required to make 250 mL of a .1 M solution of NaOH. When we calculate this we get 1g. Then the second exercise was to calculate the number of milliliters of 1.20 M HCL required to make 100.0 mL of a .100 M solutions of HCL. The answer was 8.33 ml.DATA-Standardization of NaOH SolutionSample 1Sample 2Sample 3Mass of KHP.335 g.320 g.307 gInitial Volume NaOH, Vi(mL)0 mL17.2 mL27.3 mLFinal Volume NaOH, Vf (mL)17.2 mL34.6 mL43.4 mLTotal Volume NaOH used (mL)17.2 mL17.4 ml16.1 mLMoles KHP.0016 mL.0016 mL.0015 mLMoles NaOH.0016 mol.0016 mol.0015 molMolarity NaOH.093 M.092 M.093 MAverage Molarity.093 MStandard ization of HCL SolutionSample 1Sample 2Sample 3Volume of HCL12 mL12 mL12 mLInitial Volume NaOH, Vi0 mL11.8 mL22.8 mLFinal Volume NaOH, Vf11.8 mL22.8 mL34.6 mLMolarity NaOH.093 M.093 M.093 mLMoles NaOH.0001 mol.0102 mol.00109 molMoles HCL.0019.0102 mol.00109 molMolarity of HCL.093 M.093 M.092 MAverage Morality.093 MConcentration of Unknown HCL Solution.Unknown 2Sample 1Sample 2Sample 3Volume of HCL12 mL12 mL12 mLInitial Volume NaOH, Vi (mL)Final Volume NaOH used (mL)16 mL21.2 mL26.6 mLTotal Volume NaOH, used (mL)15 mL5.2 mL5.4 mLMolarity NaOH.093 M.093 M.093 MMoles NaOH.000484 mol.000484 mol.000502 molMolarity of HCL.000484 mol.000484 mol.00502 molMolarity of HCL.040 M.040 M.042AVERAGE MOLARITY .041 MConclusion- The titration methods were use to prepare solutions of acid and base and also to determine the unknown concentration of an acid solution. Average Molarity of the unknown solution was .041 M.Supplementary Questions-1. Using the exact mass of NaOH measured and recorded at the b eginning of the experiment, calculate the molarity 250 mL NaOH solution. How does this compare to the NaOH concentration you calculated using the data in part 4? What could be some reasons for this?1g * 1mol/40g * 1L/.25 L= .1 M It is greater then the concentration in part 4.2. Why were the amounts of distilled water added to the acids not precisely recorded and considered to be irrelevant? This might be because distilled water has no effect on the amount of the acid because the acid is stronger.3. Would the calculated molarity of the HCL solutions be higher or lower or not affected if each of the following occurred. Explain your answersA. The buret containing NaOH was rinsed with distilled water but not rinsed with NaOH before being filled.Reduce NaOH concentration, more NaOH would be used. Therefore molarity of HCL would be more.B. The calculated molarity was too highThe moles of NaOH used would be high. Therefore HCL would be highC. The tip of the NaOH buret contained an air bubb le at the beginning of the titration but not at the end.It would seem like more NaOH was used Therefore HCL higher.4. Suppose you used the base Ca(OH)2 instead of NaOH. What changes would need be made to the calculations of the HCL concentrations?It would have to double because twice as more OH ions are used.

Transracial Adoption Essay Example

Transracial Adoption Essay Example Transracial Adoption Essay Transracial Adoption Essay According to Arnold R. Silverman, outcomes of translation of adoption, transracial adoption means the Joining of racially different parents and children together in adoptive families. I chose this topic for two reasons. The first reason would be due to my recent viewing of a movie called losing Isaiah. The second reason is that I am a former foster youth of the state of Oklahoma and I experienced multiple transracial a placements and I often wondered if the methods that Oklahoma Department of Human Services (OKDHS) is using for youth are the best in regards to adoption. Through out this paper I plan to provide an in-depth understanding of what Transracial adoption truly is. I also plan to explain the benefits of transracial adoption as well as the concerns in regard to transracial adoption. In this paper I plan to share detailed statistics to support the knowledge that I found as well bring light to a very sensitive social problem. In the movie Losing Isaiah, there are two women of dramatically different social, economic, and ethnic circumstances locked into a bitter child custody dispute in this emotionally powerful drama. Khailia Richards (Halle Berry) is a poor and drug- ddicted single mother who, while stumbling out of a crack house one night, accidentally leaves her infant son Isaiah in a cardboard box near a trash heap. The next morning, Khailia realizes to her horror that she left her baby behind, and she runs back to the crack spot to retrieve him. However, the baby is missing, and after much search, she presumes that he must be dead. As it turns out, the baby was spotted in the nick of time by sanitation workers and rushed to a hospital, where at the insistence of social worker Margaret Lewin Oessica Lange) the babys life was saved. Margarets heart goes out to the baby, who, along with illnesses brought about by neglect, suffers from emotional and educational problems often associated with children whose mothers used cocaine during pregnancy. Margaret, a white woman, adopts Isaiah and raises the child with the help of her husband Charles. Four years later, Khailia has successfully gone through drug rehabilitation and holds down a steady and responsible Job as a nanny and housekeeper. She learns by chance that Isaiah is still alive, and she quickly hires an attorney to help her reclaim custody of her son. However, Margaret loves the child and is not about to give him up without a battle in court. This movie made me question who is right? Does pigmentation or culture matter? Above all, what has love got to do with it? Social workers and Judges in Juvenile courts across the country are daily making these decisions of terminating parental rights and placing children in what they see as stable homes. Losing Isaiah is not a fantasy but a present reality. How to resolve these issues of custody is the dilemma for all involved. There are not any easy answers. I entered OKDHS custody of the age of six. After 12 years, I aged out of OKDHS custody and by the time I had left it was documented that I had experienced over 42 different placements. This is defiantly excessive but not uncommon. Throughout my experience in DHS custody I had a variety of pasta beer and I want that I ever truly consider the nationality of my foster parents. As an adult I didnt realize that Denmark early in the developmental years I nave black and I believe that was definitely needed to help me create and develop identity that I had. As I got older, I begin to realize that there were not as many foster homes available for teenagers. I also believe that this is definitely an influence to the reason why I was placed with more white foster parents. At the age of 16 1 met the individuals that are currently consider my parents. Yes, they are white but I often question if I would be the same person if they had adopted me form birth. When transracial placements first begin in the United States in the years following World War II, they were generally applauded or ignored by social service professionals and the black community. Social workers. When transracial placements first begin in the United States in the years ollowing World War II, they were generally a applauded or ignored by social service professionals and the black community. Social workers expressed some anxiety about the workability of these placement, the little doubt about the need for desirability as a number of transracial adoptions increased dramatically in the late 1960s, criticism greatly increased. The changing was due to a rise in movement, it is greater emphasis on the ethnic pride led many racial cultural minorities to question transracial placements. Increasing criticism developed within the black community Native Americans also expressed deep concern about the relatively large numbers of Indian children placed with wiping objections the transitional placements 1970 when the national Association of Black social workers expressed vehement opposition to the actual practice of transracial adoption. They even went farther and stated that that placing black children and white homes is a form of cultural genocide. As a result of this criticism, it was definitely a noticeable decline in transracial adoptions. It is noted that since the national Association of Black social workers expressed its bjections, the adoption of black children by whites have diminished considerably. Yet the adoption of Asians by whites have continued at a level of several thousand a year, and has been a moderate expansion in number of Central and South American children adopted by white parents. According to the adoption of foster care analysis reporting system from June 2006, African-American children comprise about 60% of the total population under the age of 18 yellow. Reports state that 34% of the children in foster care in 2006 were African-American. These numbers can truly be ut wrenching and somewhat shocking. Knowing the numbers it is clear to understand why there are so many African-American children in foster care. It is easy to see how transracial adoptions and placements could take place. The question really comes to be is transracial placements in the best interests of the children. There are a variety of studies that have been done to measure the adjustment of transracial adoptees. Through out my research it was very evident that there is a need for much more research due to the lack of current day data. McRoy and Zurcher eported the first of studies in 1983. This investigation compared 30 white families who adopted black children with 30 black families would adopt black children. I was truly intrigued by their findings. The transracial familys predominately live in white communities and their children attended predominantly white schools. The study showed that racial differences where rarely discussed at home. The children felt they had little in common with blacks and had no desire to associate with. Out of the 30- transracial adoption families only six described as acknowledging their childrens acial identi ty and the need to provide them witn a black role models. In the final group, six families consider their family structure to be interracial, their children and integrated schools, and encourage them to emphasize their black heritage. As for the interracial adopting black families they predominantly lived in black communities that would assume that the children were replaced in kinships and association with black peers. Stating they will not have problems with identity. The authors were deeply concerned about the children whose problems with race I idnt have been described above. They were concerned with the white parents whose attitudes encourage this. They were even more concerned with the Whites parents ability to respond to the necessity of equipping the child to become bicultural and to realistically receive the historical cultural black-white relations in American society I believe that their efforts were definitely beneficial to the social work in todays society. Personally, Im not opposed to transracial or interracial adoption but I do feel that there are key steps family should take to prepare for dopting a child that is not from their race. I also believe that there should be detailed training and resources provided to the families that have decided to make the step toward transracial adoption. Saying color doesnt matter is Just as bad as saying one is racist. You cant ignore an individuals race and you defiantly shouldnt teach a child to ignore their race. Race is a part of one identity and it must be taught to be embraced. Love can be shown to anyone at any time but the ability to truly embrace ones identity is a reflection of oneself. Mcroy, R. and Zurcher, L. Transracial and inracial adoptees. Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas, 1983. Silverman, A. R. with D. Witzman. Nonrelative adoption in the United States. In Adoption is worldwide perspective. RAC Hokesbegen, ed. Berwyn, PA: Swets North America, 1986 Amuzie Chimezier, Transracial adoption of black children. 1975 BelgraveAllison , African American Psychology from Africa to America, 2nd Edtion 2010 Nam Soon Huh and William J. Reid, International social work , 2000 Losing Isaiah. Dir. Stephen Gyllenhaal. Perf. Halle Berry, Samue L. Jacson. 1995.

WWII Contrasting view Points Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

WWII Contrasting view Points - Essay Example Lo" by Charles Cawthon. Hughes Rudd began his career for the forces at a very early age of nineteen when he started his training as a pilot in the year 1942. He was a very motivated young man who joined the forces of the united states as a pilot who worked as a spotter and not as a fighter as he had dreamed of. This was because of his imperfect vision. But he pursued his career and after his initial training he was moved from Fort Hays to the Fort Still where the training period became even more difficult with more obstacles. He was again lucky enough and it was his determination which made him graduate from there. After finishing his course he officially became a spotter pilot. He was allotted to work in the 93rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion. He faced many difficulties which included the misconceptions between the navy and the army which could be seen when they were forced to dress in a manner that was difficult for the pilots. He was then finally posted on the field where he worked throughout the wa r and fought against the Germans (Rudd). On the other hand Charles Cawthon was also a soldier who fought during the Second World War. He was in the army of the United States and he was not a pilot but rather a foot soldier. He begins his account directly from his memories of the war and not explaining much about his initial career. He presents with direct events of the war and the inside plans. A clear picture of the events of the war that particularly took place at St. Lo during the war up till the war was over is clearly presented (Cawthon). The spirits of Charles Cawthon do not seem as high as that of Hughes from his initial account when he says that many soldiers were not even aware why they were a part of the army whereas Hughes stated clearly that it was his dream to be a part of the forces. Charles cawthon

Valentines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Valentines - Essay Example Nelly is an athletic and a rugby player in her school. For this reason, she has a buildup body that have developed out of his hobbies. She argues that she required weight to enable her play well and protect herself from other players. Moreover, being athletic make ones develop a lot of muscle out of the many exercises and to cope with the demand of the sport (London, 2015). Nelly says that she was astonished for her date to offer a gift suggesting she cut on weight (London, 2015). She argues that that was the least she expected because she always imagined that her friend like and support her involvement in sports. Nelly says that it was her resilient that made her resist knocking him down and throwing him out of the house (London, 2015). This made her cancel the date and dump his date the following day. Katie Ford is a 33 years business woman (London, 2015). She says that she is always excited to enjoy valentine day with her date. However, on February 14, 2014 she experienced a traumatic encounter after she and her date was booked for being too drunk. That evening they went to buy drink, so they have a romantic night. However, her date started drinking and promised her of so many things he would do for her. Katie though hesitant for the man ego, agreed let him have a chance. However, they did not last long on their romantic date before Katie date got too much drunk and started fighting with strangers for no apparent reason. The commotion led the owner of the restaurant to call the police to calm down Katie date. Nevertheless, the police had no choice, but to arrest the unruly man and booked him overnight until the next day. Katie romantic moment had to end and walk in the dark to her house. She says she had a walk with her high heels alone in the middle of the night because his date was not man enough. She broke up with him the

A Maternity Support Worker Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Maternity Support Worker - Assignment Example A Maternity support care and the work of maternity support workers basically entail antenatal care, intrapartum care and postpartum care for women and babies. Antenatal care is care present/ occurring before birth or during pregnancy. It is an important period for future parents to seek support and advice, explore their expectations as for future parents, their fears, concerns, and questions. However, this period is characterized by depression, commonly called antenatal depression/ prenatal depression. Couples are advised and helped about their depression in antenatal classes to prepare them for the possibility of antenatal and postnatal depression. Maternity support care and the work of maternity support workers basically entail antenatal care, intrapartum care and postpartum care for women and babies. Antenatal care is care present/ occurring before birth or during pregnancy. It is an important period for future parents to seek support and advice, explore their expectations as for future parents, their fears, concerns, and questions. However, this period is characterized by depression, commonly called antenatal depression/ prenatal depression. Couples are advised and helped about their depression in antenatal classes to prepare them for the possibility of antenatal and postnatal depression. During such sessions, expectant parents are informed that antenatal and postnatal depressions can happen to any mother or father, are no one’s fault, are taught about the early signs and informed of available help. The healthcare worker in the antenatal stage monitors the women and their relations closely to identify any signs of depression knowing of the fact that most women mask those feelings. This is done for instance by asking the right questions./ antenatal depression can be a precursor to postpartum depression if not tackled. Tackling these depressions help make childbirth and early parenting easy as any stress felt by mother can have negative effects on feta l development which can injure both mother and child. Factors leading to antenatal depression may be an unplanned pregnancy, history of abuse, difficulty becoming pregnant, economic issues, family constraints, relationship with the father, and jobs and responsibilities. Some of the signs and symptoms of antenatal depression are inability to concentrate, difficulty remembering, feeling emotionally numb, sleep problems not related to pregnancy, extreme/ unending fatigue, extreme irritability, a sense of fear about everything, lack of feeding interest or desire to overfeed, feelings of failure/ guilt, persistent sadness, loss of sexual desire, weight loss or gain unrelated to pregnancy, inability to get excited about the baby and form or feel a bond with the baby and thoughts of suicide/ death.

Wireless Charging Of Mobile Phones

Wireless Charging Of Mobile Phones Abstract -With mobile phones becoming a basic part of life, the recharging of mobile phone batteries has always been a problem. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery standby according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out. The main objective of their manufacturer and battery make. In this paper a new proposal has been made so as to make the recharging of the mobile phones is done automatically as you talk in your mobile phone! This is done by use of microwaves. The microwave signal is transmitted from the transmitter along with the message signal using special kind of antennas called slotted wave guide antenna at a frequency of 2.45GHz. There are minimal additions, which have to be made in the mobile handsets, which are the addition of a sensor, a rectenna and a filter. With the above setup, the need for separate chargers for mobile phones is e liminated and makes charging universal. Thus the more you talk, the more is your mobile phone charged! With this proposal the manufacturers would be able to remove the talk time and battery standby from their phone specifications! INTRODUCTION THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM To start with, to know what a spectrum is: when white light is shone through a prism it is separated out into all the colours of the rainbow; this is the visible spectrum. So white light is a mixture of all colours. Black is NOT a colour; it is what you get when all the light is taken away. Some physicists pretend that light consists of tiny particles which they call photons. They travel at the speed of light (what a surprise). The speed of light is about 300,000,000 meters per second. When they hit something they might bounce off, go right through or get absorbed. What happens depends a bit on how much energy they have. If they bounce off something and then go into your eye you will see the thing they have bounced off. Some things like glass and Perspex will let them go through; these materials are transparent. Black objects absorb the photons so you should not be able to see black things: you will have to think about this one. These poor old physicists get a little bit confused when they try to explain why some photons go through a leaf, some are reflected, and some are absorbed. They say that it is because they have different amounts of energy. Other physicists pretend that light is made of waves. These physicists measure the length of the waves and this helps them to explain what happens when light hits leaves. The light with the longest wavelength (red) is absorbed by the green stuff (chlorophyll) in the leaves. So is the light with the shortest wavelength (blue). In between these two colours there is green light, this is allowed to pass right through or is reflected. (Indigo and violet have shorter wavelengths than blue light.) Well it is easy to explain some of the properties of light by pretending that it is made of tiny particles called photons and it is easy to explain other properties of light by pretending that it is some kind of wave. The visible spectrum is just one small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These electromagnetic waves are made up of two parts. The first part is an electric field. The second part is a magnetic field. So that is why they are called electromagnetic waves. The two fields are at right angles to each other. THE MICROWAVE REGION Microwave wavelengths range from approximately one millimeter (the thickness of a pencil lead) to thirty centimeter (about twelve inches). In a microwave oven, the radio waves generated are tuned to frequencies that can be absorbed by the food. The food absorbs the energy and gets warmer. The dish holding the food doesnt absorb a significant amount of energy and stays much cooler. Microwaves are emitted from the Earth, from objects such as cars and planes, and from another because microwave energy can penetrate haze, the atmosphere. These microwaves can be detected to give information, such as the temperature of the object that emitted the microwaves. Microwaves have wavelengths that can be measured in centimeter! The longer microwaves, those closer to a foot in length, are the waves which heat our food in a microwave oven. Microwaves are good for transmitting information from one place to light rain and snow, clouds, and smoke. Shorter microwaves are used in remote sensing. These mi crowaves are used for radar like the Doppler radar used in weather forecasts. Microwaves, used for radar, are just a few inches long. Because microwaves can penetrate haze, light rain and snow, clouds and smoke, these waves are good for viewing the Earth from space Microwave waves are used in the communication industry and in the kitchen as a way to cook foods. Microwave radiation is still associated with energy levels that are usually considered harmless except for people with pace makers. Here we are going to use the S band of the Microwave Spectrum. Microwave frequency bands Designation Frequency range K Band 18 to 26 GHz Ka Band 26 to 40 GHz Q Band 30 to 50 GHz U Band 40 to 60 GHz V Band 46 to 56 GHz W Band 56 to 100 GHz L Band 1 to 2 GHz S Band 2 to 4 GHz C Band 4 to 8 GHz X Band 8 to 12 GHz Ku Band 12 to 18 GHz The frequency selection is another important aspect in transmission. Here we have selected the license free 2.45 GHz ISM band for our purpose. The Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) radio bands were originally reserved internationally for non-commercial use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and medical purposes. The ISM bands are defined by the ITU-T in S5.138 and S5.150 of the Radio Regulations. Individual countries use of the bands designated in these sections may differ due to variations in national radio regulations. In recent years they have also been used for license-free error-tolerant communications applications such as wireless LANs and Bluetooth: 900 MHz band (33.3 cm) ( also GSM communication in India )2.45 GHz band (12.2 cm) IEEE 802.11b wireless Ethernet also operates on the 2.45 GHz band. TRANSMITTER DESIGN The MAGNETRON (A), is a self-contained microwave oscillator that operates differently from the linear-beam tubes, such as the TWT and the klystron. View fig(1) is a simplified drawing of the magnetron. CROSSED-ELECTRON and MAGNETIC fields are used in the magnetron to produce the high-power output required in radar and communications equipment. The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no grid. A magnetic field located in the space between the plate (anode) and the cathode serves as a grid. The plate of a magnetron does not have the same physical appearance as the plate of an ordinary electron tube. Since conventional inductive-capacitive (LC) networks become impractical at microwave frequencies, the plate is fabricated into a cylindrical copper block containing resonant cavities that serve as tuned circuits. The magnetron base differs considerably from the conventional tube base. The magnetron base is short in length and has large diameter leads that are carefully sealed into the tube and shielded. The cathode and filament are at the centre of the tube and are supported by the filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the cathode and filament structure fixed in position. The output lead is usually a probe or loop extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a waveguide or c oaxial line. The plate structure, shown in fig(1), is a solid block of copper. The cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Alternate segments are strapped together to put the cavities in parallel with regard to the output. The cavities control the output frequency. The straps are circular, metal bands that are placed across the top of the block at the entrance slots to the cavities. Since the cathode must operate at high power, it must be fairly large and must also be able to withstand high operating temperatures. It must also have good emission characteristics, particularly under return bombardment by the electrons. This is because most of the output power is provided by the large number of electrons that are emitted when high-velocity electrons return to strike the cathode. The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of a high-emission material. The open space between the plate and the cathode is called the INTERACTION SPACE. In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons. Fig (1) The magnetron structure RECEIVER DESIGN The basic addition to the mobile phone is going to be the rectenna. A rectenna is a rectifying antenna, a special type of antenna that is used to directly convert microwave energy into DC electricity. Its elements are usually arranged in a mesh pattern, giving it a distinct appearance from most antenna .A simple rectenna can be constructed from a schottky diode placed between antenna dipoles. The diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the microwaves. Rectennae are highly efficient at converting microwave energy to electricity. In laboratory environments, efficiencies above 90% have been observed with regularity. Some experimentation has been done with inverse rectennae, converting electricity into microwave energy, but efficiencies are much loweronly in the area of 1%. With the advent of nanotechnology and MEMS the size of these devices can be brought down to molecular level. It has been theorized that similar devices, scaled down to the proportions used in nanotechnology, could be used to convert light into electricity at much greater efficiencies than what is currently possible with solar cells. This type of device is called an optical rectenna. Theoretically, high efficiencies can be maintained as the device shrinks, but experiments funded by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory have so far only obtained roughly 1% efficiency while using infrared light. Another important part of our receiver circuitry is a simple sensor. This is simply used to identify when the mobile phone user is talking. As our main objective is to charge the mobile phone with the transmitted microwave after rectifying it by the rectenna, the sensor plays an important role. The whole setup looks something like this. THE PROCESS OF RECTIFICATION Studies on various microwave power rectifier configurations show that a bridge configuration is better than a single diode one. But the dimensions and the cost of that kind of solution do not meet our objective. This study consists in designing and simulating a single diode power rectifier in hybrid technology with improved sensitivity at low power levels. We achieved good matching between simulation results and measurements thanks to the optimisation of the packaging of the Schottky diode. Microwave energy transmitted from space to earth apparently has the potential to provide environmentally clean electric power on a very large scale. The key to improve transmission efficiency is the rectifying circuit. The aim of this study is to make a low cost power rectifier for low and high power levels at a frequency of 2.45 GHz with good efficiency of rectifying operation. The objective also is to increase the detection sensitivity at low levels of power. Different configurations can be used to convert the electromagnetic wave into DC signal, the study done in showed that the use of a bridge is better than a single diode, but the purpose of this study is to achieve a low cost microwave rectifier with single Schottky diode for low and high power levels that has a good performances. This study is divided on two kind of technologies the first is the hybrid technology and the second is the monolithic one. The goal of this investigation is the development of a hybrid microwave recti fier with single Schottky diode. The first study of this circuit is based on the optimization of the rectifier in order to have a good matching of the input impedance at the desired frequency 2.45GHz. Besides, the aim of the second study is the increasing of the detection sensitivity at low levels of power. SENSOR CIRCUITRY The sensor circuitry is a simple circuit, which detects if the mobile phone receives any message signal. This is required, as the phone has to be charged as long as the user is talking. Thus a simple F to V converter would serve our purpose. In India the operating frequency of the mobile phone operators is generally 900MHz or 1800MHz for the GSM system for mobile communication. Thus the usage of simple F to V converters would act as switches to trigger the rectenna circuit to on. A simple yet powerful F to V converter is LM2907. Using LM2907 would greatly serve our purpose. It acts as a switch for triggering the rectenna circuitry. The general block diagram for the LM2907 is given below. Thus on the reception of the signal the sensor circuitry directs the rectenna circuit to ON and the mobile phone begins to charge using the microwave power. CONCLUSION Thus this paper successfully demonstrates a novel method of using the power of the microwave to charge the mobile phones without the use of wired chargers. Thus this method provides great advantage to the mobile phone users to carry their phones anywhere even if the place is devoid of facilities for charging. A novel use of the rectenna and a sensor in a mobile phone could provide a new dimension in the revelation of mobile phone.

Comparison of the Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aeneid

The ancient world literature is filled with epic tales of heroes and gods who go on perilous adventures to foreign lands and encounter many mythical beings along the way. These adventures usually teach a lesson or give insight as to the culture of the area and time period in which it was written. The Iliad, the Odyssey and the Aeneid are all similar epics in their adventures and their lessons. Throughout the literary works of the ancient world there are many reoccurring motifs such as: the role of the gods, the role of suffering, and the roll of fate.The role of the gods shows heavily in the literary works of this era through the god’s direct interference in mortal events. Within the Iliad Athena, who hates the Trojans, does not directly kill Hector but tricks him into facing Achilles which ultimately leads to his death. Thetis, the mother of Achilles, helps her son and the Greeks throughout their adventures in any way possible. Similarly in the Odyssey gods interfere with the mortals to show their own will over their lives. Although he could not kill Odysseys, Poseidon sent storms to delay him after he disrespected him and blinded his son.Hermes, however, actually assisted Odysseus on Circe’s island by warning him about her potions and giving him a means to protect himself. After Odysseus’ men slaughter the sun god Helios’ prized cattle, Zeus is asked to bring about a storm which destroys all Odysseus’ ships and kills all his men. In the Aeneid, Juno convinces Aeolus to unless a storm on Aeneas as he searches for a friendly harbor, because of her strong hatred for Trojans (Aeneas and his men are destined to destroy her beloved city of Carthage). Neptune senses this storm within his realm so he immediately calms the storm and essentially saves Aeneas.Another ally to Aeneas is his mother Venus who helps her son whenever she can. Although Venus and Juno are on completely different sides in the matter of the Trojans they both mak e sure Aeneas and Dido fall in love, for very different reasons. The reoccurring role of the gods essentially choosing sides in each battle shows that the people of this time very much competed in some respects to obtain the gods attention and bring them to be their allies. The role of suffering is also an obvious motif in the epics of the ancient era.In the Iliad, Achilles suffers the loss of his friend/cousin Patroclus which is the cause of his rage in battle. King Priam also mourns the loss of his son Hector, by the hand of great Achilles in battle, as well as not immediately having his body to provide him with a proper funeral. This motif unifies the Iliad and Odyssey as Odysseus suffers throughout the entire epic because he is being kept from his home, his wife Penelope, and his son Telemecus. Penelope is also suffering because she is without her husband, raising her son alone, and having to deal with suitors pursing her to remarry.Telemecus also suffers without his father. Aga in, the idea is reflected as Aeneas suffers initially because he lost in wife Creusa as they were fleeing Troy, as well as losing his home. Aeneas and Dido both suffer in their love story as they live together happily as lovers, but he is reminded by the gods that he has another purpose and must leave. To which such anguish is caused that Dido kills herself. Aeneas also suffers in that he is not ever able to see the fruits of his labors throughout his life.Each characters suffering serves a purpose whether it is to teach them a lesson or to change how they are living it ultimately presents them with some greater knowledge. Each account of suffering is because of family and love, so the role of suffering in these epics ties together the concept of how important family was to the ancient people. The role of fate is another extremely frequent motif appearing in this time period’s literature. For the Iliad, this appears when Achilles was destined to kill Hector in the Trojan War as was Hector destined to be killed by Achilles.The gods could not interfere with that final outcome. Achilles death had also been destined since he was born. The Odyssey follows in that Odysseus was destined to wander for 10 more years before returning home for his actions. Along the way, it was also destined that Odysseus would lose all his ships and men before he would return home. A third set of examples in fate lie within the Aeneid as fate destines that the Trojans will destroy the city of Carthage. The Trojans who fled will find their promised home land in Italy as designed by fate.Aeneas also lived after he faces the mighty Achilles because he is destined for another purpose, such as fulfilling the previous prophecies. In the end, fate is the ultimate authority and shows how the people of the time believed that not even the mightiest of their world could not compete with the predestination idea they also believed in. The reoccurring motifs of the role of the gods, the role o f suffering, and the roll of fate all give a strong insight as to what was important to the people of the culture and religion that were popular during the ancient era.The people were deeply superstitious in their polytheistic religion and their epics reflect these beliefs. Their heroes are all extremely similar in their character traits and their stories themes alike. All of the heroes go on adventures away from their families and encounter suffering because of their decisions. Each work acknowledges that the gods are mighty and do control their suffering to an extent, but cannot control fate. The Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aeneid are all unified in that they possess some of the same motifs, as well as reflect the culture of the time period.

Role and Function of Art

FUNCTION AND ROLE OF ART IN 21st CENTURY Seminar on Aesthetics: Research Assignment – Essay Abstract In 21st century, art is keeping pace with the technological evolution while taking advantage of it. Role and function of art has evolved, adapted and gained diversity in terms of interest, production, specialization and idea. Examination of personal, social and physical functions of art are going to be discussed with examples. While discussing assigned roles of today’s art and design, the subject will be clarified with author’s personal opinion.The core aim of this paper is to answer the question of â€Å"What is the role and function of art in the 21st century? † FUNCTION AND ROLE OF ART IN 21st CENTURY 21st century art is a growing field of practice, research and publication, with a lot of diversity in terms of conceptualization. This makes it a lot more interesting to study field of art today. In the early part of the 20th century, what we now call †Å"Modern Art† became main stream and at a point it all started to look same old. Museums and exhibition environments use to be perceived as high class society by public which puts up a distance between art and the viewer.Other topics that were much-discussed in the late 20th century remain vital for the 21st century art and visual culture. Art of the 21st century is affected by globalization. The world in which we live and work has become increasingly economically, politically, and culturally interconnected. Aided by internet and mass media, people can reach out to local art and artists via a device which has WI-FI or 3G. It is easier to follow development of art by monthly e-mail updates from different services.This incredible growth of interconnectivity emerges with a modern way of critical thinking and scholarly debate, and creates a whole new perspectives and ideas to their consumers. The increased movement of artists across borders and oceans has added to the intermixing of influences. Artist today are regularly and freely mix media and forms, making the choices that best serve their concepts and purposes. Some of the basic personal functions of art such as self-expression, gratification, communication or aesthetic experimentation are still remains today, yet there are many of them and they vary from person to person.A lot of different topic, idea, taboo, cliche and stereotype have been resonating in the world of artists. Some artists are interested in the freedom to solve the special problems of style or technique which fascinate them. Others seek the freedom to use style and technique to express their views about society and political processes. Sometimes a piece doesn’t have to mean anything. The meaning comes with the perceived value of the piece by the audience. For example, John Cage wrote a symphony which continues for four minutes and thirty three seconds of complete silence and called it â€Å"4:33† or â€Å"Four Thirty Three †.Even though piece does not include any kind of musical note, it is one of the most well-known classical music pieces of our century. Conservative communities of classical music do not consider this as a good art as it is not representing its root, while some art critics raising voice against the existence of term â€Å"good† or â€Å"high† art. Any argument and/or objection can change the fact that John Cage’s piece offers a complete new experience and perspective to its audience. The audience is the key to examine social functions of art.In a sense, every piece of art has a social function unless it is not created for an audience. Art has always influenced human and human behavior. Art can influence the attitudes of people in groups, affecting the way they think or feel and, ultimately, the way they act. Today’s social media is playing a key role to bring society together. Facebook, tweeter, myspace a like social web sites has millions of users. Museums, theaters and other traditional exhibition environments have become screens in our bedroom. Going-green† and alike social activism reaches out to its audience by a piece of art or design. Artists attracted by the immediacy and connectivity of globally networked media often create online projects that invite social interaction. Relational aesthetics has developed (and been contested) as a critical theory for analyzing and evaluating such undertakings. Paintings and buildings can be symbols, but only buildings serve a physical function. The art of â€Å"physical function† refers to objects that are made to be used as tools or containers.Architecture, the crafts and industrial design are some areas where physical functionality is inevitable. Today we have industrial designers; they create anything- from earthmovers to cigarette lighters to houses to storefronts. Art shares responsibility for the built environment: how it looks and how it works. And here, art means more than embellishing or beautifying surfaces. We love our dishwashers, air conditioners, automatic ovens, tile bathrooms, and built in stereo sets more than the qualities of light and space that art and design can bring to a home.The great aim for this era is to combine aesthetic and physical functionalities in an art piece. The arts can play a pivotal role in moderating the complexities of our lives. The art can open an argument among diverse groups by creating safe spaces for engagement, thus allowing new relationships to take root. It can help us understand and connect cultural distinctions. It contributes to economic opportunities and community vitality. It enhances our quality of life. Through its multiple means of expression, the art can raise a voice where once there was only silence.As a young designer/artist, I feel lucky to live in this century. Today, transnational flow of information makes it easier to conceptualize and exhibit my work. Thus, economical complications a re too influential on artists and especially for designers. Art and design related costumers, producers, sponsors etc. who provides money might try to manipulate/dictate on the final piece, or the concept, even the idea. If we, as artists and designers of the new era can take advantage of new social interactivity, it is very easy to reach out society while not being dependent to providers.It is still early in 21st century. Development of art never stopped, and never will be. In the future, we might look back and see this era as experimentation in combining technology, functionality and art. It might feel like everything has been experimented, done or thought yet we continue to create, spread and consume. Art must play a role in the improvement of our collective existence. Art must participate through visual education and persuasion in the development of popular attitudes which can lead eventually to a better society.

The Political Life of James Mo essays

The Political Life of James Mo essays James Monroe was formally elected to his uncles seat in the Virginia House of Delegates. Within a short time, Monroes legislative colleagues arranged for him to sit on the Governors Council, a position with little power but immense prestige for a newcomer. As a member of the council, one of the areas Monroe took a deep interest in was the development of the West. After a year, Monroes performance as a councilor was solid enough to land him an even more important position delegate to the Continental Congress. By 1783, Monroe had already emerged as a significant patriot-leader. It was a role he would assume for the remainder of his life. Monroe left Virginia to serve in Congress, the center of activity trying to work out the new national government. One issue Monroe jumped on was the plan of government for the west. He designed the trip to understand and plan for that regions future. From his journey, Monroe played an important part in shaping the congressional policy in the westward region.During his time in Congress, Monroe showed a growing interest in the expansion of the U.S. commerce. In one session, he tried to convince Congress of the need to amend the Articles of Confederation, which would allow Congress to regulate and control trade. Monroe ended his congressional term, and even though he had been the first to consider revising the Constitution, he was not selected as a Virginia delegate and later opposed the ratification of the new Constitution. In 1786, after he ended his congressional term, Monroe returned to Virginia to take up practicing law. Judge Jones discouraged him from starting his law in career in Richmond, Virginia, and Jones suggested that he go to a smaller town for greater opportunities and political advancements. Monroe took up residence in Fredericksburg, Virginia. He married his wife, Elizabeth Kortright, from New York on February 1786. By December, Mon...

Risk management and the identification and analysis of risk The WritePass Journal

Risk management and the identification and analysis of risk INTRODUCTION Risk management and the identification and analysis of risk INTRODUCTIONImportance of risk managementCauses of pressure ulcerPressure ulcer gradingPrevalence and IncidenceCost of pressure ulcersIdentification and Assessment of riskNorton scaleStrengths and Limitations of Norton ScaleBraden scaleConclusionBibliographyRelated INTRODUCTION Risk management is the identification and analysis of risk. This leads to planning and implementation of control measures which may be physical, clinical, financial or cultural. The intended objective or aim being to eliminate, reduce or transfer risk. (Wilson.J. and Tingle.J. ed (1999)). Risk is defined as the possibility of incurring misfortune or loss and may be associated with patients, visitors and staff. It may also be associated with buildings and estate, equipment and consumables, systems and management. (Dobos C (1992)). Alaszewski et al (1998) a social scientist defines risk as the possibility that a given course of action will not achieve its desired and intended outcome and that some undesired and undesirable situation will develop instead. In the case of pressure ulcers, the nurses’ objective is to prevent them or stopping them from deteriorating any further. To do this there is need to identify the best assessment tool that can identify those that are at risk. With several assessment tools out there, there is need to identify a tool that is able to measure what it is supposed to measure and more accurately. (Dougherty et al 2008) Importance of risk management All organizations, public or private, large or small, do regularly face internal and external uncertainties that affect their ability to achieve their objectives. Effective implementation of risk management can help Organizations improve their chances of survival and success. Risk management encourages organizations to rely on proactive management to promote high quality care; deal effectively with opportunities and threats; comply with regulatory requirements. It also encourages them to improve on mandatory and voluntary reporting; improve on governance; encourage stakeholder confidence and trust; enhance strategic planning; minimize financial, environmental and safety losses; and improve on organizational resilience and performance. (Shortreed ,2010:p 8 ).There is little evidence though which testifies that   risk management reduces litigation, controls or reduces the incidence of adverse events or produces improvements in quality of care (Walshe and Deneen 1998.p 12-3). Risk management    is a fundamental element of the nurse’s role which is expected to lead to health and safety promotion of the members of the team and the patients with whom they come into contact. Pieces of legislation like the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 and Mental Health Act 1983. Also Human Rights Act 1998, Data protection Act 1998 and Mental Capacity Act 2005 do support the need for risk management. Patient safety in particular has been placed high on the Government’s agenda, the focus of guideline documents including ‘Organization with a memory’ (DH, 2000), ‘Building a safer NHS for patients’ (DH, 2001) and ‘Doing less harm’ (DOH and NPSA 2001). Also ‘Learning from Bristol’ (DOH 2002), ‘Design for Patient Safety’ DOH 2005, ‘Safety First’ (DH, 2006) and in ‘The operating framework for the NHS in England 2009/10à ¢â‚¬â„¢ (DH 2008), do give patient safety top priority. The NHS Plan reiterates the need for risk management by mentioning that all health organizations now have a statutory duty of quality and a responsibility to reduce the number of mistakes. (Department of Health, 2000). In the case of pressure ulcers it is the duty of the nurses to make sure that they are prevented and research shows that it is possible in 95% of the time (Waterlow 2005). Causes of pressure ulcer Pressure ulcers, are commonly referred to as pressure sores, bed sores, pressure damage, and pressure injuries. They are areas of localised damage to the skin, which can extend to underlying structures such as muscle and bone. Damage is believed to be caused by a combination of factors including pressure, shear forces, friction and moisture .EPUAP (2009) Pressure ulcers can develop in any area of the body. In adults damage usually occurs over bony prominences, such as the sacrum. (Dougherty et al 2008). People who are more prone to ulcers are those in most cases with the following intrinsic risk factors namely reduced mobility increasing age, incontinence, poor nutritional intake/dehydration, acute, terminal or chronic illness, neurological deficit, poor oxygen supply to the tissues, diabetes ,obesity/reduced body weight, sepsis/pyrexia, mental state/depression, medication .(NICE 2003). In community the changes in health environment and demographic set up have further compounded the problem of pressure ulcers as the health service changes have led to more patients being discharged earlier from acute care into the community. This, together with demographic changes, has given rise to increasing numbers of immobile elderly patients being cared for by the already short staffed community nursing staff. (Chaloner et al 1999.p 1142) Pressure ulcer grading EPUAP (2009) came up with four Category/Stages in grading pressure ulcers. Stage I pressure sore is a Non-blanchable erythema intact skin with non-blanchable redness of a localized area usually over a bony prominence. Darkly pigmented skin may not have visible blanching; its color may differ from the surrounding area. The area may be painful, firm, soft, warmer or cooler as compared to the rest of the tissue. Category I may be difficult to detect in Individuals with dark skin tones. In risk management this category is usually a sign that the patient is at risk of pressure sores. Category/Stage 2 presents clinically as an abrasion or blister. It is a partial thickness loss of dermis presenting as a shallow open ulcer with a red pink wound bed, without slough. May also present as an intact or open/ruptured serum-filled or sero-sanginous filled blister. This category is sometimes confused with tape burns, incontinence associated dermatitis, maceration or excoriation. Category Stage 3 is superficial lesions.   Subcutaneous fat may be visible but bone, tendon or muscle is not exposed. Slough may be present but does not obscure the depth of tissue loss. May include undermining and tunnelling. The depth of the pressure sore depends on the location of the ulcer. Category/Stage 4 results in full thickness tissue loss with exposed bone, tendon or muscle. Slough or eschar   Ã‚  may be present. Often includes undermining and tunneling. The depth of a Category/Stage 4 pressure ulcer just like stage three varies by anatomical location. They can extend into muscle and/or supporting structures. Bone and muscle is left exposed. Prevalence and Incidence It is estimated that approximate pressure ulcer prevalence is 6.7% of the UK patient population (DH 1992). Kaltenthaler, E et al (2001) reviewed sixty research papers that were written between 1980 and 1997 and a few before 1980. In the review they were able to establish that Prevalence reported for hospitals in the UK ranged from 5.1to 32.1%.The range for community settings was 4.4 to 6.8% and that for nursing homes was 4.6 to 7.5%.The highest reported prevalence was 37% for a palliative care unit. Incidence reported for hospitals in the UK ranged from 2.2% per annum to 29% over a maximum period of six weeks. Only one study, which included patients who were bedfast and chair fast, was reported for community settings giving an estimate of 20% over a maximum period of six weeks. No incidence studies were found for nursing homes. The highest reported incidence was for older patients with hip fractures which was 66% over an 18-month period. There were discrepancies   in measuring prev alence and incidence which can affect the findings, namely, substitution of incidence for prevalence in analysis,   use of different classification systems, under-reporting of pressure ulcers on transfer from different care facilities, overestimation of prevalence data by not taking case-mix into account, use of pressure ulcers as a measurement of quality, causing under-reporting, use of different study designs (prospective versus retrospective, observation versus chart review). (Sternberg, J. (1989.p 50). Moffatt, and Franks (1997:p.96-105) came to the conclusion that prevalence in community may be higher than stated since it is difficult to gain all information about patients in community. Cost of pressure ulcers The total cost of pressure ulcer care in the UK is said to be between  £1.4 billion– £2.1 billion which constitute four percent of total NHS expenditure. More than ninety percent of the cost of treatment is the cost of nurse time. (Bennett et al 2004). Modern dressings accounted for eighty million pounds worth of sales and traditional (dry, gauze based) dressings accounted for twenty one million pounds in the UK in 1999 (Russell, 2000). This can be divided into hospital (fourteen million pounds, six million pounds) and community (sixty four million pounds, fifteen million pounds for the modern and traditional respectively (Dealey, 1994). Patients in the UK are increasingly aware of their political clout and litigation against the NHS when it delivers below expectation is becoming a common occurrence (Walshe and Deneen 1998.p 9-10). The NHS receives around ten thousand new claims for clinical negligence annually, and this number is rising (National Audit Office 2001). The t otal annual charge to NHS accounts for settling claims has risen seven-fold since 1995–1996. Relatively few of the current claims relate to pressure damage and in the UK the mean value of settlements in these cases is relatively low compared to other countries like the United States of America (typically less than ten thousand pounds). (Tingle J. 1997.p 757-8). The emotional costs of living with a pressure ulcer are difficult to quantify. What is known is that patients experience pain, dependency, fear of the odor from the ulcer as well as feeling unclean. In a nutshell, negative effects on quality of life are real but impossible to quantify. (Bush 2002.p 34) (Reed et al 2001). All this according to Walshe and Dineen (1998.p 1-37) justifies the case for risk management. Identification and Assessment of risk Part of risk management requires that patients be screened on initial contact and if identified to be at risk of developing pressure ulcers should receive a full assessment of that risk. This is considered best practice. It is also best practice to use evidence based tools and scales in the process. (DH 2010). The rationale for trying to identify those that are at risk of pressure ulcers is that it is cost effective to prevent pressure ulcers than to cure them. This can be achieved considering that up to 95% of the pressure sores are said to be preventable (Waterlow 2005).   Also it is cost effective to catch them early than later ((Touche Ross, 1994). There are a number of tools and scales that have been devised over a long period of time. The most widely used are the Norton (Norton et al, 1962) and Waterlow (Waterlow, 1985.) scales in the UK and the Braden Scale (Braden and Bergstrom, 1988.) in the USA. Although precise figures on the use of these scales is unknown, it is acknowl edged that the Waterlow scale is the most frequently used risk assessment score in the UK ,especially in secondary care and some community setting. In community  Ã‚   in the UK ,The Walsall Community Risk Score Calculator   has been in use for   about twenty years but further research on validity of the tool is needed .(   Chaloner.D.M, and   Franks .P .J. (1999.p 11 42-1156)). The predictive validity of these assessment tools and scales in predicting which patients go on to develop pressure ulcers has   shown that there are clear variation in sensitivity, which means some tools are more effective in identifying and predicting those who are at elevated risk, and   thus may go on to develop a pressure ulcer. (NICE 2005.).Some researchers like Edwards (1996.) do doubt the rationale of applying measures of sensitivity and specificity to the scales when mathematical models were not used in designing them. There is an also ethical issue that arises in testing because it is not possible to have a sample of patients who are at risk who are not receiving intervention, which may have an effect on specificity (Deeks, 1996). Using the development of pressure ulcers as the only criteria for measuring the tools has its own weakness in that it misses those that were at risk but were rescued by good nursing and medical care .Waterlow (1996.)   argues that there is b ound to be statistical fallacy in the use of sensitivity and specificity because conditions never in most cases remain static especially in the face of good or bad   preventive nursing and medical interventions. Norton scale The Norton scale was the first tool used for pressure sore risk prediction, although it was originally intended for use as a research tool for studies in geriatric populations and not as a risk predictor (Norton et al, 1975). The scale contains assessments of general physical condition, mental status, activity, mobility and incontinence.   The Norton Scale is designed to identify the need for preventive pressure care in older hospital patients and aged care home residents.   Each of the five items is scored from 1 to 4, with a maximum total score of 20. Scores of 14 or less rate the patient as at risk of developing pressure sores, the lower the score, the greater the risk. The cut off point for at risk patients was later raised to 15 or 16 by Norton (Norton et al 1985). Strengths and Limitations of Norton Scale The tool has received wide spread criticism. Its simplicity which is supposed to be it strength has been identified as a weakness. The weakness identified is the assessor subjectivity (Dougherty et al 2008). It has been accused of both over predicting and under predicting   patients who are at risk of developing pressure ulcers   especially in patients undergoing surgery or recovering from myocardial infarction (Flanagan, M., 1993.),(Pritchard 1986). According to Bergstrom et al 1987 the Norton scale in his test over predicts by 64% while the Braden scale over predicts by 36%. This over and under predicting can have an effect on the resources that are to be utilized in dealing with the risk. The result may be wastage or use of less than adequate resources. The Norton is said to acknowledge that the tool was not intended as a universal tool, otherwise age and nutrition would have formed part of the criteria (Waterlow 2005). Deeks (1996.) used five separate studies to assess the predictive abilities of the Norton scale.   Three studies reported sensitivities of between 60% and 90% (Norton et al, 1975; Goldstone and Goldstone, 1982; Smith, 1989), one reported a sensitivity of less than 20% (Stotts, 1988), and one only had five patients developing pressure sores (Lincoln et al, 1986) and hence provided a very inaccurate zero estimate. The low sensitivity in this study may be attributed to the fact that it was based on patients who were admitted for an elective surgery and the Norton scores were taken on admission to predict pressure ulcers and the post operative data was not sufficient to come up with a sensible conclusion. On specificity the verdict was that it did vary a lot and variation was between 30% and 95%. All this shows massive inconsistence when it comes to sensitivity and specificity. Waterlow scale The waterlow scale is a popular scale in United Kingdom. It is seen as an improvement on the Norton scale (Heath (1995.p 625).Waterlow (1985) believed that many of the intrinsic factors, such as pain, nutrition, reduced cardiac output and anesthesia, had been omitted from the Norton scale   which had been developed for an elderly population. Consequently, the Waterlow risk-assessment scale was developed in 1984 (Waterlow, 1985) as a comprehensive tool to be used in conjunction with the nursing process. The tool was supposed to help nurses in the medical and surgical setting but not to replace clinical judgment. Unlike other tools which are based on an under taking of data collection, the aim of the tool is to provide guidelines on the selection of preventive aids and equipment as well as on management of established pressure sores. It is also to promote awareness of causes of pressure sores and provide a means to determine risk of pressure ulcer development. (Simpson et al (1997).T he waterlow has six main areas of risks namely build/weight, continence, skin type, mobility, sex/age and appetite. It also alerts the user to tissue malnutrition, neurological deficit, trauma and specific medication. The risk score threshold is 10, with 10-15 being ‘at risk’, 15-20 ‘high risk’, and above 20 being ‘very high risk’. (Dougherty 2008). Strength and limitations of the Waterlow On validity, Thompson (2005.p 455-459) cited Dealey (1989) comparative study of the Waterlow and Norton score. In the assessment of 175 elderly patients the waterlow had ninety eight percent sensitivity, and fourteen percent specificity. The Norton on the hand had had eighty eight percent sensitivity and twenty six percent specificity. The Waterlow was better on sensitivity but no so good on specificity. In another study by Wallard (2000), the waterlow scale was better than the Braden and Norton scale in terms of pressure sore predictive power in a study of 60 patients with spinal cord injuries. The Waterlow scored sixty four percent at high rate and thirty four percent at very high rate. Norton tool scored eighty six percent at no risk, eight percent at risk and two percent at high risk while the Braden scored four percent at no risk, twenty nine percent at low risk, forty six percent at moderate risk and twenty one percent at high risk. This shows that the Waterlow performs well in this group of patients. Although the waterlow scale is popular in UK, Edwards (1996) is skeptical on it’s inter reliability stating that Waterlow herself performed most of the observations during its development. Dealey (1989) in her research in which Student nurses from four wards assessed the same five patients using the Waterlow tool and the Norton tool. The results of that research showed 60% agreement on the Waterlow score and a 70% agreement using the Norton score .Despite this weakness on the part of the Waterlow it still is the most popular scale in UK. Edwards (1995) also assessed its inter-rater reliability using a cross-sectional observational survey of 40 community elderly patients with and without pressure ulcers. To minimize the risk of error, a research assistant with the same level of knowledge and experience participated with the researcher. 25% total agreement was reached and the specific low agreement categories were, mobility, build/weight for height and skin condition, suggesting that the tool is subjective. This means that patients may have received expensive equipment unnecessarily based on such unreliable scores. Waterlow (2005.) is the one to admit that it is a simplistic tool which needs the support of good clinical judgment and advice from the tissue viability nurses for it to be effective. This is true when choosing preventative aids. Also Waterlow (2005) is not confident that it will be effective in other areas other than in hospital and nursing homes were it was designed. This leaves the community and residential home settings with a tool that needs modification. Braden scale The Braden Scale was developed in the 1980s  Ã‚   in the USA for use  Ã‚   in medical and surgical acute units. It was developed following a prospective investigation of risk factors in the development of pressure sores (Moffatt, and Frank, (1997). The Braden scale has been widely utilized in United States of America. It does get backing from the Agency for Health and Research which recommended it for use in predicting pressure sore development in hospital and nursing homes in the United States of America. (Simpson et al (1996.)).Unlike the Norton and the Waterlow scales which assess risk it is a pressure ulcer predictor (Dougherty (2008.)).The Braden scale is a twenty three point instrument composed of six subscales namely sensory perception, moisture, activity, mobility, nutrition, friction, and shear (Heath (1995)) .They are scored from 1 to 4 depending on the severity of the condition except for friction and shear which is scored 1 to 3. The total score is then added up with a range which can go from 6 to 23.The lower the score, the higher the risk of developing a pressure ulcer. (Dougherty et al (2008). Strengths and limitations Unlike other tools the internal ratings of the six categories are supported by assessment guidelines. These guidelines seek to clearly describe the behavior and experience of the patient. The Braden Score has been validated in a number of patient populations (Bergstrom et al 1987 cited by Moffatt, and Frank, (1997)).For example, 99 medical and surgical patients assessed by registered nurses had an agreement between staff 88 per cent of the time. A sensitivity of 100 per cent, a specificity of 90 per cent and a negative predictive value of 100 per cent. A licensed practical nurses study had an agreement in only 19 per cent of 100 patients; sensitivity and negative predictive value were 100 per cent and a specificity of 64 per cent. These shows a poor inter rater reliability even though the prediction value is high. Bergstrom et al (1987) in a further study of 60 adults in intensive care showed a sensitivity of 83 per cent, a specificity of 64 per cent and a negative predictive value o f 85 percent. This shows that the Braden scale has very good sensitivity and reasonable specificity levels in patients in hospital if not better than all the above mentioned tools. In negative specificity it proved that it can identify those that will not end up with pressure sores in medical, surgical and intensive care. (Moffatt, and Frank, (1997).   It has been criticized for being difficult to use in a working environment and that it is still to prove itself in different settings in UK especially in community. (Dougherty (2008) (Simpson et al (1997). The Walsall score The Walsall Community Health Trust undertook to develop a tool for use in patients within the community .The development came about as a result of examining the existing risk scores and evaluating factors which they felt were likely to be important in the development of pressure sores. Each factor was then ascribed a score based on the influence it was felt it had on increasing the risk of pressure ulcer development. The development was based on clinical opinion and not epidemiological evidence to determine risk factors and scoring methods. (Chaloner.D.M and Frank’s .P .J. (1999) The Walsall tool looks at the following, predisposing disease, level of consciousness, mobility, skin condition, nutritional status ,bladder incontinence ,bowel incontinence .These are factors which other tools look at with one exception which makes it more relevant in community where the benefit of the 24 hour nursing care which is provided in hospital does not exist. The exception is the carer input which is particularly relevant to patients being treated in the community where care is intermittent, and often provided by informal carers who may be relatives or friends. Nursing intervention is expected in the following mobility, skin condition, nutritional status, bladder incontinence, bowel incontinence, and carer input categories. (Chaloner.D.M, and Franks .P .J. (1999).The â€Å"Total Risk Scores† determine the category as less than 4 (not at risk), 4 – 9 (low risk), 10 – 14 (medium risk), and 15 and over (high risk). Strengths and limitations All the mentioned tools were developed in hospital in some cases specifically for inpatients and the Walsall is meant specifically for patients in community and residential homes. To assess validity, a cross sectional study of 720 patients in Walsall, was under taken looking at the incidence of pressure damage, despite intervention, over a 12-week period. The study was in two phases. The first phase looked at nine categories which included pain and in the second phase they decided that pain was not relevant in determining pressure sores and left it out. Using ROC curve analysis highest sensitivity after adjustment was 80% with a corresponding specificity of 54%.The original weightings which included pain and predisposing diseases with an equivalent specificity could only achieve a sensitivity of 64 %.( Chaloner.D.M, and Frank’s .P .J. (1999). Although not better than other tools in terms of sensitivity and specificity, this modified tool is the first risk tool, developed specifically for the community environment to be scientifically tested.   It is also yet to be subjected to rigorous tests .Like all risk tools it is not supposed to replace clinical judgment.    Conclusion From the critical analysis of the above mentioned tools the only conclusion is that no single tool is considered reliable for universal use. Also some tools even in their intended areas of use do not always produce consistent result. The only way forward is for areas of care to produce their own hybrid risk assessment tool tailored to specific patient needs. This tool would be used as an ‘aide memoire’ to be used in conjunction with clinical judgment (RCN 2001).   The hybrid risk assessment tool creation to be effective should involve all health professionals, patients and carers. This makes sense because there is need to involve all the professionals and non professionals involved in the care of the patient in identifying risk. These professionals and non professionals should have the full knowledge that failure of one link in the chain of prevention will result in the development of a pressure ulcer. (Simpson et al 1997).    Bibliography Alaszewski A, Harrison L, Manthorpe J (1998) Risk, Health and Welfare: Policies, Strategies and Practice. Open University   Press, Buckingham Andersen KE, Jensen 0, Kvorning SA, Bach E (1982) Prevention of pressure sores by identifying patients at risk. Br MedJ284: 70-1 BENNETT,G.DEALEY,C, POSNETT,J.(2004).The cost of pressure ulcers in the UK. Age and Ageing 2004; 33: 230–235 Braden BJ, Bergstrom N (1988) Clinical utility of the Braden Scale for predicting tissue sore risk. Decubitus 2: 34–8 Braden BJ, Bergstrom N (1994) Predictive validity of the Braden scale for pressure sore risk in a nursing home population. 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The mental processes stimulated in the reader by literary texts are Essay

The mental processes stimulated in the reader by literary texts are distinctly different from those required in the interpretati - Essay Example First we must examine the mental processes that are being inferred in this premise. While the brain and the ‘little black box’ of language acquisition certainly supply the rudiments by which we as human beings interpret language as communication, it is also our experience that helps us interpret not only non-literary data correctly, but also give us the insight to interpret literary and creative communication in a multitude of ways as well. Noam Chomsky (1968), and others, have posited that we all possess a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) often referred to as the ‘little black box’ which starts up in infancy and runs till about five or six years old. There is a universal grammar that is possess that allows us to pick up language quickly through imitation and observation. As time passes this device appears to shut down and learning language become a much more complex process, intellectual rather than subconscious. However, after this time we process languag e itself at higher and more complex levels, allowing literature to be created and understood, well beyond the simple rules of grammar. Context is certainly the key when trying to perceive the way the mind perceives and differentiates between literary and non-literary texts. ... However these packets are often not so clear-cut and can also vary dependent upon one’s own persona experience, ‘†¦ this involves not only knowledge of language but also organised knowledge of the world.’ (Goodman and O’Halloran 2006: 371) This knowledge can also vary from culture to culture as well as on an individual basis. Take for instance scripts which are defined as ‘†¦knowledge of a stereotypical situation or activity.’ (Goodman and O’Halloran 2006: 362) These evolve over time and are based solely on individual experience within a cultural or social context. ‘Separating schemata into scripts, plans, goals and themes can sometimes be tricky because boundaries are not always so clear-cut. This is why Cook (1994) uses the expression â€Å"interpretative schemata† rather than just â€Å"schemata†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. (Goodman and O’Halloran 2006: 373) Relevance theory, on the other hand, is part of the branch of linguistics known as ‘pragmatics’ (Goodman and O’Halloran 2006: 377) that is also closely related to philosophy. Simply stated, this theory relies on the assumption that any packet of language has an ‘in-built guarantee’ (Goodman and O’Halloran 2006: 366) that it is relevant the reader will seek that relevance. Here, oddly enough, is where relevance of content and context play a major difference in the reader’s perception and further interpretation of the text. A reader will assume a maximum amount of relevance given the context of the text. In the instance given in the text, the reader will only give so much time to a commercial advert deeming its relevance to be clear by the specification of the

The systematic analysis of an art work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The systematic analysis of an art work - Essay Example The Museum possesses a permanent collection of Art works of American, European, Asian and Contemporary Art. The reason behind the selection of the painting- The Young Shepherdess is that it represents the attractiveness of village life. Besides, it stands for nostalgic feeling and realism. At the museum, the work was displayed on canvas mounted on board, with high concentration on minute details of female human body. Bailey Van Hook concludes that: â€Å"Bouguereau’s subjects divide into mythological and religious subjects and peasant genre.† (Hook 32) As an exponent of Academic Painting, Bouguereau’s subject matter is vivid, ranging from mythological, religious and peasant genre. Moreover, he was with a Classical approach towards composition, form and subject matter. Bouguereau was an exponent of Academic Art, which was deeply influenced by European Universities. He made use of nature allegories to bring out the essence of his unique ideas. As a supporter of Academic Painting style, Bouguereau granted highest status to historical and mythological subjects. This uniqu e art work belongs to peasant genre because the very face of the shepherd girl reveals her innocence and truthfulness of peasant life in remote villages. Besides, the work is symbolic of hardships of peasant life. The face of the girl reveals that she is without any emotion towards life and her defensive pose shows that she is with so many household responsibilities like rearing sheep. Her bare footed state, naked neck, ears and hands expose her poverty. Moreover, the artist was famous for his lively female portraits with a slight touch of eroticism. At this point, the artist makes use of color combination for the clarity of the painting. For instance, the girl is portrayed in light colors, i.e. grey, light grey, ash color and ivory white color. Here, one can see that the lower part of the girl is painted in dark colors/shades and the upper part is painted in light colors/shades.